Articles, Direct and Indirect Speech

Nama     : Ujang Saepuloh
NPM       : 17216469


ARTICLES (a, an and the)

            Basically, an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns. English has two articles : the and a/an. “The” is used to refer to specific or particular nouns. “a/an” is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns.

a.       The  : definite article

Example :

If I say, “Let’s read the book” I mean a specific book. So, we used ‘the” because “the” is used to refer to a specific or particular member of group.

b.      a/an  :  indefinite article

Example :

“I would like to go to see a movie”. Here, we’re not talking about specific movie. We’re talking about any movie. There are many movie, and I want to see any movie. So, we used “a/an” because “a/an” is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of group.

1.      Indefinite Articles : a and an

        “a” and “and” signal that the noun modifies is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For examples :

      a)      “My sister really wants a bird for her brother’s birthday”. This refer to any bird. We don’t
            know which bird because we haven’t found the bird yet.

      b)       “When I was at the forest, I saw an owl”. Here, we’re talking about single, non-specific
             thing, in this care an owl. There are probably several owl at the forest, but there’s only one
             we’re talking about here.

        If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between “a” and “an” depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the articles :

      a)      a big bottle

      b)      an expensive diamond

      c)      a European country

        Remember too that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a group :

      a)      I am a doctor (I am a member of a large group known as doctors).

      b)      Brian is an Irishman (Brian is a member of the people known as Irish).

2.      Indefinite Articles : the

        The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. “the” signals that the nouns is definite, that it refer to a particular member of a group. Example :

           a)      “The cat that steal the fish everyday”. Here we’re talking about a specific cat, that dog
              steal the fish.

           b)      “I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat”. Here, we’re talking about a

                   particular policeman. Even if we don’t know the policeman’s name. it’s still a particular

                   policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.

           c)      “I saw the eagle at the zoo”. Here, we’re talking about a specific noun. Probably there is                  only one eagle at the zoo.

3.     Count and Non-count Nouns

        “the” can be used with non-count nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.

            a)      I love to eating the rice.

            b)      She drank the mil this morning.

        “a/an” can be used only with count nouns.

            a)      I need a plate of rice.

            b)      He need a cup of coffee.

4.      Geographical use of the

        There are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns.

            a)      Don’t use the before :
          1) Names of most countries/territories : Italy, Mexico and Bolivia. However, the Netherlands,
               the Dominic an Republic, the Philippines, the United States.

                 2) Names of cities, town or states : Soul, Manitoba, Miami.

                 3) Names of streets : Washington Blvd., Main St.

                4)  Names of lakes and bays : Lake Titicaca, Lake Except with a group of lakes like the Great                 Lakes.

                 5)  Names of mountains : Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains.

                 6)  Names of continents (Asia and Europe).

                 7)   Names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the                            Aleutians, the Hebrides or the Canary Islands.

            b)      Do use the before :
               1)   Names of rivers, oceans and seas : the Nile, the Pacific.
               2)   Points on the globe : the equator, the North Pole.
               3)   Geographical areas : the Middle East, the west.
               4)   Deserts, forests, gulfs and peninsulas : the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest,
                    the Iberian Peninsula.

5.      Omission of Articles

        Some common types of nouns that don’t take an article are :

            a)      Names of languages and nationalities : Chinese, English, Spanish and Rusian.

            b)      Names of sports : volleyball, hockey and baseball.

            c)      Names of academic subject : mathematics, biology, history and computer science.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

(Present simple, present continuous, present perfect and present perfect continuous)

1.      Direct Speech/Quoted Speech

        Saying or quoting exactly what someone has said is called direct speech or quoted speech. Here what a person says appears within quotation marks (“…”) and should be word for word.

               -        She said, “Today’s lesson is about direct and indirect speech”.

            “Today’s lesson is about direct and indirect speech”, she said.

2.      Indirect Speech/Reported Speech

        Saying or reporting what someone said without quoting his exact words is called indirect speech. Here we don’t use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and doesn’t have to be word for word. Example : He said that yesterday’s lesson was about direct and indirect speech.

3.      Reporting Verb

        The verb in the first part of sentence (say, said, tell, admit, complain, explain remind, reply think, hope, offer, refuse, etc.) before the statement of  a person in sentence is called reporting verb.

4.      Adverbs of Time and Place

        If the reported sentence contains an expression of the time, you must change it to fit with the time of reporting, and adverb of nearness should be put into those of distance.

            -        Today              : yesterday/that day

            -        This evening    : that evening

            -        These (days)    : those (days)

            -        Now                : then
     -        (a week) ago    : (a week) before

            -        Last weekend  : the previous weekend

            -        Here                : there

            -        Here after        : there after

            -        Next (week)    : the following (week)/a week after

            -        Tomorrow       : the next/following day

            -        Thus                : so

            -        Last night        : the previous night

            -        Yesterday        : the say before/the previous day

            -        Hither              : thither

            -        Hence              : thence

        If something is said and reported at the same time, then the time expression can remain the same.

            -        He told me today, “I will go to Jakarta tomorrow”.

          He told me today he would go to Jakarta tomorrow.

            -        She told me this week. “we gave our exam last week”.
          She told me this week, they had given their exam last week.

5.      Tenses

        If the reporting verb is in present or future (say, says or will say) then don’t change the tense that you can find within the quotation marks.

            -        She says, “I was ignorant than”.

          She says that she was ignorant than.

            -        I will say, “She loves her dad”.

          I will say that she loves her dad.

        If reporting verb is in the past tense, the verb in the reported speech must be generally changed. Because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past. The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.

             -        She said, “I am going to the zoo”.

           She said she was going to the zoo.

6.      Tense Change

             a)      Present simple > Past simple

             They said, “it is hot” > They said it was hot.

             b)      Present continuous > past continuous

             She said “I’m singing a pop song” > she said she was singing a pop song.

             c)      Present perfect > past perfect

             She said “I’ve been holiday for three days” > she said had been holiday tor your three days.

             d)     Past simple > past perfect

             He said, “I printed thesis one week ago” > He said he had printed thesis one week ago.

             e)      Past continuous > past perfect continuous

             He said, “I was washing the car” > he said he had been washing the car.

             f)       Past perfect (no change)

             She said, “My mother had already cooked when my sister played”.

             g)      Past perfect continuous (no change)

             He said, “I’d already been dancing for twenty minutes”.

7.      Modal Verb

            a)      Will > would

             He said, “I’ll learn math tomorrow” > he said he would learn math tomorrow.

            b)      Can > could

              She said, “I can imported my bag” > she said she could imported her bag.

            c)      Must > hard to

             She said, “I must have a laptop to my thesis” > she said she had to have a laptop to her
             thesis.

            d)     Shall > should/would

             He said, “I shall appreciate it” > he said he would appreciate it.

            e)      May > might

             He said, “May I drink this milk?” > he asked if he might drink that milk.

8.      After wish, would rather, had better, it is time

                  -        Ghea said, “I wish we were in London.”
              Ghea said he wished we were in London.

                  -        Fajar said, “I would rather walk”.
              Fajar said he would rather walk.

                  -        Nisa said, “we had better go.”
              Nisa said we had better go.

                  -        Kintan said, “It is time I bath”.
              Kintan said it was time he got up.

        If direct speech the words within quotation marks talk of a universal truth or habitual action. You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event. Example:

She said, “next week’s lesson is on reported speech.”

She said next week’s lesson will be on reported speech.

9.      Pronouns

        We have to change the pronouns to keep the same meaning of a sentence. Example :

Ali said, “we are the best players”

Ali said they were the best palyers.

10.  Reported Speech In If-Clauses

Ganjar : “If I win a boxing match, my parent would be happy”

Ganjar said that if he win a boxing match, his parent would be happy.

11.  Reported Speech of Interrogative

            a)      Remove the quotation marks and question mark in the interrogative sentence.

            b)     Use “if” or “whether” if the sentence inside the quotation mark begins with a helping
              verb.

            c)      Use the given interrogative word if it does not begin with the helping verb.

            d)     Don’t use “that”.

            e)      Changing the reporting verb into “ask, want to know wonder or inquire” in its correct 
             sentence.

            f)       Omit helping verb like “do, does, did”. But don’t omit them when they are with “not”.

Example :

Sad I to my teacher, “won’t you help me to learn about direct an indirect speech complete rules?”

I asked my teacher if he would not help me to learn about direct and indirect speech complete rules.

12.  Reported Speech of Yes/No Questions

        In yes/no questions we use if or whether in questions. If is more common and whether is more formal.

            a)      Remove the quotation mark in an imperative sentence.

            b)      Use “to” if it is an affirmative sentence.

            c)      Use “not to” if the sentence begins without Don’t.

            d)     Don’t use “that”.

            e)      Omit the word “please”. Use the word “request” instead of “say”.

            f)       If the direct speech contains a request or a command, the reporting verb shange to tell,
                  request, order, command, etc. in its correct sentence.

           g)      The commands, requests and advice mostly have the same form in English :

     Verb + object + infinitive (advise, ask, recommend, etc.) Example :

     “Get up!” he said

     He warned me to get up.

     Negative : verb + object + not + infinitive. Example :

     “Don’t smoke,” the doctor warned my uncle.

     The doctor warned my uncle not to smoke.

13.  Reported Speech of Advice

        If it contains advice the reporting verb changes into advised. Example :

“put on your bag,” I said.

I advised him to put on his bag.

14.  Reported Speech of Exclamatory Sentences

            a)      Remove the quotation marks and exclamatory mark.

            b)      Use the conjunction “that”.

            c)      Add the word “very” to the adjective or adverb if necessary.

            d)     Change the reporting verb to “exclaim joyfully”.

            e)      Use “exclaim” sorrowfully for sorrowful incidents.

Example :

He said, “Alas! I Have missed the paper.”

He exclaimed sorrowfully that he had missed the paper.

15.  Use of “That” in Reported Speech

        In reported speech, the word that is often used, however it is optional. We recommend you no to use it because in some cases se don’t use “that” in reported speech like : question, command request and order, so its better not to use it. Example :

He told me that he lived in Hazara Town.

He told me he lived in Hazara Town.

16.  Punctuation in Direct Speech

        Used to separate the quoted words from the rest of the text : this allow a reader to follow what’s going on.

“I’m coming home late tonight,” she said (American English)

“I’m coming home late tonight.” She said (British English)